hinese area. This development, too, may be regarded as foreshadowing the
region's emergence as an ODA donor. In the transition from the 20th to the 21st
century, the region's position relative to other regions is clearly in the process of
momentous change.
(2) Differences and similarities among Asian countries
In many aspects, including climate, topography, language, culture, and
religion, Asia embodies perhaps greater diversity than any other region in the world.
Nevertheless, Asian countries also share many traits, and this commonality comes
into sharper focus when the region is subdivided.
Japan, for example, is composed of islands, and therefore physically
distanced to some extent from the other countries. This isolation was deepened by
the policy of national seclusion, which lasted for three hundred years from the 17th
century and cut the country off from any type of political, economic, and cultural
exchange with others. Under these circumstances, Japan developed its own
distinctive customs. At the same time, however, the cultural and social foundation
underpinning these customs was largely of Chinese origins, which had entered the
country from the mainland via the Korean peninsula. For example, the Japanese
writing system uses the same ideograms as used in China and Korea. Japan, Korea
and China are sometimes regarded as forming a single "Confucian" cultural sphere.
In other words, these countries have much in common with each other.
South Pacific island countries provide another example of similarity. The
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of the countries occupy 30 million square
kilometers which is three times larger than China. Hundreds of separate languages
are spoken in the region (more than 700 within Papua New Guinea and over 100 in
both Solomon Islands and Vanuatu). They share, however, very similar traditional
knowledge and practices. Land tenure systems vary throughout the region but are
commonly based on communal land ownership patterns which control land use and
the exploitation of natural resources. Special prohibitions can be imposed on certain
practices or the harvest of certain species or areas.
A similar situation can be found in the region's other subdivisions. While
each country or area has its own distinct character, it also shares something with
others in the region. It was mentioned above that the intraregional economic
linkage is likely to become even stronger, and this should give the region's countries
more common ground in the economic sphere to supplementing the other common
ground in the cultural and historical spheres.
The region's countries also resemble each other in respect of the pattern of
economic development. Figure III-1-2 shows the "Flying geese pattern" (i.e.,
staggered sequence) of this development. In this formation, Japan is followed by the
NIES which, in turn, are followed by the Southeast Asian countries and China.
Figure III-1-2 GDP per capita in Asian countries compared with Japan and
Korea (Unit : US$)
At the same time, this development has been accompanied by the surfacing
of environmental problems in these countries through a similar pattern. Figures
III-1-3 and III-1-4 include the trends of economic growth for Japan, China and
Korea, and Figure III-1-5, the stages of development of environmental policy in
these three countries. The same sequence described above has been followed these
three countries as regards the stage of environmental problems and policy to
counter them. More specifically, Korea formulated policies similar to Japan's with a
time lag of some 12 - 14 years, and China some 21 - 24 years later. The other
countries in the region will presumably exhibit the same pattern of onset of
environmental problems and policy response to them as this flying geese pattern
development proceeds.
Figure III-1-3 Energy consumption per capita
Figure III-1-4 GDP per capita
Figure III-1-5 Changes of environmental policy
(3) Common problems
Many of the countries in the region are facing the same environmental
problems, the population issue being one of the most serious. Although the
population growth rate has dropped considerably, this region will be still the most
populous in the world, with over half of the world's population. Most countries are
making tremendous efforts to control population, and some of them have succeeded
in cutting the population growth rate. China, Indonesia and Thailand have
successful family planning. However, the population growth rates of many
countries, particularly of LDCs, (least developed countries) are still high. Rapid
population growth is harmful to not only of environment, but also of economy.
Degradation of natural resources is another common issue in the region.
Forests, wetlands, and other important ecosystems are being threatened in many
areas. Degradation of top soil and fresh water resources are serious issues
throughout the area and will be even more critical in the next century. Coastal
zones, for example, support a variety of human activities. Reefs and lagoons are the
prime source of subsistence protein for a large portion of the region. Their high yield
potential has been reduced throughout the region by a wide range of activities, such
as overfishing, pollution, landfill, mangrove damage, and sedimentation.
Climate change and sea level rise are also common issues of grave concern.
Island countries are particularly vulnerable because they include many hundreds of
low-lying islands and atolls which are the home of most of their populations.
Extremely scarce supplies of potable water and very limited areas of arable soil
would be seriously affected by global warming which seems to have been caused not
by themselves but by industrialized countries.
3.1.2 Policy proposals
The Asia-Pacific region is composed of countries that represent considerable
diversity in various aspects. At the same time, however, these countries are finding
common ground and continuing to grow economically while maintaining close
mutual ties in the industrial and economic spheres. As there is the same mix of
differences and similarities in the environmental field as well, the success of the
proposals depends on reinforcement of partnership among not only governments
but also parties in other sectors for promotion of exchange of experience, knowledge
and technology.
(1) Exchange of experience
The same pattern of environmental problems tends to repeat in each country
as industrialization proceeds. A late start in economic development is not entirely
disadvantageous; it also has certain advantages. One is that the country in question
can better avoid the mistakes made by those preceding it in the sequence of
economic development. It can draw on the experience of predecessors to revise its
own course. If it moves ahead without trying to learn from the experience of
forerunners, it could very well encounter the same kinds of problems as they did.
Instructive here is the situation surrounding the Minamata disease in Japan.
Although the disease was first reported in 1953, it took a remarkable 15 years for
official recognition that it was caused by the mercury used in the process of
synthesizing acetaldehyde. In the meantime, many people became victims of this
industrial pollution. By applying Japan's experience, other countries can prevent
industrial pollution due to mercury. There is no need for a repetition of the tragic
history of the disease's first 15 years in Japan as well as the long and difficult period
that followed.
Conversely, the developed countries must share their environmental
experience with the developing ones and encourage sustainable industrialization in
them. There is no guarantee that the most developed country will have the most
suitable technology. When the stage of industrialization between it and the
developing country differs by a few decades, it may not be advisable to apply the
latest technology in the latter without modification. This is not to say that the latter
should use technology that is a few decades old; it may find appropriate technology
in semi-developed countries. Cooperation between developing and semi-developed
countries could conceivably yield great benefits. Three examples follow:
(a) Expansion of technical cooperation by developed countries with developing ones
Promotion of cleaner production and energy efficient technologies through
international cooperation should be given a high priority in the interest of making
development sustainable. International cooperation in this field would not only
bring big cost savings but also help transfer technologies. There is a particularly
crucial need for greater efficiency in distribution of electrical power.
(b) Technology transfer by middle income countries
Because the development gap between middle income countries and
developing countries is not so large, the former may have more to share with the
latter in the way of issues and experience in overcoming environmental problems
than do developed countries. There has not been much cooperation between middle
income and developing countries in the environmental field so far, and it should be
encouraged, in the future.
The Asia-Pacific region is characterized not only by rich diversity but also
considerable similarity. There are many aspects within Sub-regions in which
natural and social conditions have more in common than in other regions. The
region's indigenous tradition, experience, and technology would probably be more
receptive to campaigns to conserve ecosystems than counterparts from other
regions in many cases. The subregions also resemble each other in the strains
placed on ecosystems and natural resources. Korea stands out even in the global
context for having increased its area of forest in the process of industrialization. As
a part of the so-called sema-ul un don, new village movement, the government
promoted the adjustment of a change from the "slash-and-burn" method of
cultivation as well the relocation and resettlement of such farmers. Afforestation
was undertaken simultaneously. These measures helped the country's forests to
recover. This experience contains valuable lessons for countries faced with a decline
of forestland.
A deepening of intraregional exchange will presumably turn up other such
cases which have significant implications and could be shared with other countries.
Such horizontal cooperation could be built through exchange and information
sharing among governments, research institutes, and NGOs.
(c) Promotion of information circulation through Internet, etc. (ECO ASIA Net
proposed by the Environment Agency)
Internet is a formidable tool for promoting the circulation of information
among governments, research organizations and other concerned institutions. In
the United States and certain other countries, research institutes in the
environmental field are already using it for transmission of information to other
parties. Full use of Internet would make for a smoother distribution of information
in the Asia-Pacific region as well.
(2) Exchange among companies, NGOs, and local authorities
(a) Environmental Concern in investment and trade, and corresponding programs
of intercorporate exchange
In the Asia-Pacific region, economic growth is accelerating as mutual
economic relationships among the countries expand. These intraregional
relationships are expected to have an even greater impact on the environment. It is
estimated that, in 1993, direct foreign investment into East Asian countries for the
year came to about 45 billion dollars. Of this, the intraregional share (i.e., the share
of foreign investment within the region) accounted for about 32.9 billion dollars.
Similarly, intraregional trade now amounts to over 400 billion dollars for the year
(see Table III-1-1). This enormous flow of funds has both positive and negative
consequences for the intraregional environment.
Investment and trade which takes full consideration for the environment
could do much to improve it. Expanded investment and trade leads to a rise in
income levels which, in turn, is associated with a rise in environmental awareness
and pursuit of a better environment. The expansion of economic exchange also
promotes the transfer of environmental protection technology. In contrast,
investment and trade expansion without adequate concern for the environment
could magnify the adverse consequences.
To encourage trade and investment activities with a positive environmental
impact, the countries of the region must increase their exchange of information on
environmental policy and technology. Governments should be encouraged to
develop schemes for cooperation that will minimise the negative impact of
investment and trade.
Another key task is the construction of Eco-Partnership linking private
companies. Some prospects on this front are as follows.
Exchange and technological tie-up between companies possessing
environmentally sound technology (EST) and those lacking it
Companies with advanced technologies should be encouraged to transfer
EST when establishing subsidiaries or joint ventures in developing countries, or
forming technology tie-ups with developing-country companies.
Environment-related information sharing and dialogue
Companies in developed-countries tend to have a keener awareness of the
environment than companies in developing-countries, as well as being in possession
of EST. This awareness and technology could be transferred through a deepening of
intercorporate exchange related to environmental protection.
Cooperation with the implementation of environmental management systems
The ISO 14000 series specifies requirements for an environmental
management system, to enable an organization to formulate a policy and objectives
which take into account legislative requirements and information about significant
environmental impacts. These standards, like other international standards, are
not intended to be used to create non-tariff trade barriers or to increase or change
an organization's legal obligations. The standards request the certified company to
strive for continual improvement of environmental performance.
It is hoped that the ISO 14000 series will be effective incentives to conserve
both the local and global environment. A number of companies in developed
counties are prepared for them. Close international relationship among companies
could stimulate those in developing countries to obtain the certification. The
improvement of their performance could contribute to environmental conservation
in the region.
Measures among small and medium enterprises
Even as the above trends develop, small and medium enterprises (SMEs)
which are short of funds, technology, and information are likely to meet problems.
Pollution problems caused by SMEs are often very significant and difficult to be
dealt with. Although both financial and technical assistance and proper
enforcement of regulations are necessary, mechanisms and also needed to promote
the cooperation and support for SMEs. A network among SMEs, government
agencies and NGOs could, for example, facilitate cooperation, particularly the
provision of information.
(b) Construction of cooperative relationships through NGOs
In the Asia-Pacific region, NGO relationships with government and
companies have often been portrayed as confrontational. In the process of social and
economic maturation, however, these relationships are becoming more oriented
toward mutual complementation. In countering environmental problems and
poverty, there is a need to reaffirm the vital role that can be played by NGOs with
firm local roots. Japan makes efforts to support NGO activities through grass-roots
grant aid and the Japan Fund for Global Environment. It is imperative for all
countries to continue supporting non-profit NGO activities.
There is also a need for expansion of cooperative relationships among NGOs
themselves. The establishment of venues for exchange of opinion and experience
among NGOs confronting similar difficulties helps to increase the capabilities of
each.
Information exchange
NGOs are often key players in urban and rural environmental programs,
particularly in community based activities. Although many NGOs are engaging
similar activities in the region, there is still not much exchange of information. The
requirements in this area include the establishment of fora and provision of means
for such exchange. Joint NGO programs would facilitate mutual exchange of
experience and knowledge. International organizations are promoting cooperation
among NGOs. UNDP, UNEP, the World Bank, and ADB, for example, are
implementing a number of programs involving NGOs and providing fora for NGOs
activities throughout the region. Those kinds of activities should be further
encouraged.
Promotion of environmental education and awareness
NGOs have a major role to play in enhancing awareness of the environment
among the general public. Exchange of educational materials and know-how in this
area would add impetus to these activities.
(c) Exchange among local authorities
In many cases, the national level is too broad for approaches to
environmental problems. In such cases, cities and other local authorities can play a
major role in the quest to achieve sustainable development. These bodies are closer
to the people and in a better position to sense their needs and to take finely-tuned
action. Because of this, measures on this local level are often more appropriate.
Cities in the Asia-Pacific region are rapidly growing in population and face
many similar problems in such aspects as transportation and the living
environment. Sharing of experience and knowledge among these cities would assist
the resolution of these problems. A fine example is the Metropolitan Environment
Improvement Program (MEIP) implemented for major Asian cities by the World
Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
Urban environmental planning in the Asia-Pacific region
Elements of the existing intercity network, such as MEIP, sister-city and
other ties, and the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives
(ICLEI), should be harnessed to establish a forum to discuss and joint action to
resolve problems faced by these cities in common.
(3) Joint activities
Here, the term "joint activities" is used in a broad sense differing from that of
the term "joint implementation" used in UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change.
(a) Implementation of joint projects
Investment for environmental protection often does not yield benefit over the
short term, and is consequently apt to have a low priority in national policy.
Implementation of projects together with other countries would promote transfer of
funds, technology, and know-how, and prove more effective than implementation by
each separately. For example, in its Official Development Assistance Charter, the
Japanese Government has listed environmental protection as one of the
fundamental objectives of its ODA, and indicated its willingness to more active ?
support projects contributing to this end. Similarly, the World Bank, Asian
Development Bank, and other international institutions involved in development
have shown support projects conforming with the objective of sustainable
development. Investment for environmental preservation in cooperation with
donors instead of independently would widen fund-raising avenues. And
international schemes of cooperation would accelerate the transfer of technology
and know-how.
(b) Development of Environmentally Friendly Products
As Asia-Pacific trade and investment gather momentum, it is important to
cultivate trade contributing to sustainable development and markets having a
positive impact on the environment.
In developed countries, consumers are inclining toward products that are
gentle to the environment, even if they are slightly more expensive (see Figure III-
1-6 and Table III-1-3). In the Asia-Pacific region, standards of living are swiftly
rising along with economic development. Because environmental awareness tends
to rise with personal income levels, the demand for environment-friendly products
in the region will probably increase. Quite possibly, once an international market of
this sort takes shape, efforts of cultivation would turn up many more promising
products, such as desks made of old rubber trees and paper made of sugar beet and
banana fibers. Such products and markets for them could be created through
cooperation linking NGOs engaged in grassroots activities with companies and,
when necessary, governments.
Figure III-1-6 Recycling Ratio in Japan
(4) ECO ASIA focal point
It is recommended that an ECO ASIA Focal Point (EAFP) be established in
each country and region, to facilitate the above activities. Its structure and mandate
should be decided by each country and region. It is desirable to involve not only
relevant government agencies but also local authorities, private companies, NGOs,
indigenous people and other interest groups. One possible role is as a focal point for
cooperation with EAFPs of other countries or regions, and as a coordination center
of national activities.
Table III-1-3 Acceptability of environmentally sound goods
|
Daily Necessities |
Refrigerators |
Air- conditioners |
Automobiles |
Houses |
Only in case they cost as much as non environmentally sound goods | 45.1 | 32.1 | 31.7 | 30.3 | 31 |
Even if they cost more by around 10% | 28.9 | 32.6 | 31.7 | 28 | 23.3 |
Even if they cost more by around 20% | 6.5 | 9.6 | 9.6 | 8.2 | 7.5 |
Even if they cost more by around 30% | 3.8 | 4.8 | 5.1 | 4.8 | 3.5 |
Even if they cost more by around 50% | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Even if they cost more then 50% | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.8 | 0.4 | 1 |
Others | 8.4 | 11.7 | 12.4 | 15.5 | 21.9 |
Invalid | 6.1 | 8.4 | 8.4 | 12.4 | 11.5 |
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