A Long-term Perspective on Environment and Development in the Asia-Pacific Region
Executive Summary
Objectives
The outcome of this project will be made available to ECO ASIA participating countries and organizations, and reported to the Fifth Session of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development and/or to the special session of the United Nations General Assembly in 1997. This report introduces current and future environmental and social economic issues in the region, offers 'Asia-Pacific Eco-Consciousness' as a conceptual tool for building partnerships, proposes the three concepts of 'Eco-Partnership', 'Eco-Technology and Eco-Investment' and 'Eco-Policy Linkage' to guide action, and finishes with recommendations and follow-up activities.
Characteristics of the region
The Asia-Pacific region as defined for this report is vast, and is diverse in
ecosystems, history, cultures, ethnicity, political systems, and economic
development. The marine environment dominates the physical environment of the
region. It covers tropical, temperate and arctic climate zones and stretches from the
Pacific Basin to the South China Sea, and from the Indian Ocean to Antarctica in
the Southern Ocean. The coastal zone is of considerable significance, with a large
percentage of the population in the region living on or near the coastline. The region
has the world's highest peaks in the Himalayas, and the deepest ocean floor in the
Sulu Sea near Indonesia.
A number of countries in the Asia-Pacific region are experiencing high economic growth, making it a major growth center in the global economy. National economies range from industrialized to non-industrialized, and range from high to low average per capita incomes.
This project identifies common cultural, spiritual and linguistic elements in the region which could provide bases for working on the main environmental issues. Significant elements identified include: Confucian ethics common in China, Korea and Japan; the influence of the 'Ramayana' from India to Indonesia; language groupings including Indonesian, Malaysian and the Philippino, and Malay- Polynesian languages spoken in the Pacific region; many indigenous cultures which are rich storehouses of wisdom accumulated through lives that have been tied to local natural environments; cultures based on rice cultivation common throughout Asia; strong ties with the sea; many island societies which rely heavily on seafood; a high level of private sector activity; and the growing roles of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) of citizens' groups.
Environmental problems
This report identifies a number of key environmental issues. Many countries
in the region share problems that arise from rapid industrialization, population
growth, and concentration of people in cities. With energy consumption rising
rapidly, the region is a major and growing driver of climate change, and at the same
time one of the most vulnerable to sea-level rise. Industrialization is causing air
pollution, water pollution, toxic chemicals pollution, etc. Common environmental
problems caused by urbanization involve sewage, household waste, and noise and
air pollution due to traffic congestion. Environmental problems deriving from
poverty are also coming to the fore in the Asia-Pacific region. In 1992 the Asia-
Pacific region had 3.1 billion or half of the world's people. According to ESCAP the
region has 72% of the world's farming population, but only 30% of the world's arable
land. Soil degradation affects 10 to 50% of national land areas in East and South
Asia, and 36% of arable land in Asia is experiencing desertification. The region has
a high rate of tropical deforestation with 1.2% of forest land being deforested per
year.
Prospects for the region
The business as usual (BaU) forecasts for 2025 are based on conventional
trend analysis and empirical regression formulas derived from empirical
relationships between various economic, social, and environmental indicators and
per capita GDP. Results of a more comprehensive economic and environmental
model (AIM Model) developed by NIES (National Institute for Environmental
Studies, Japan) are also used.
One BaU scenario (high economic growth rate scenario) gave the following results for the countries studied. The industrial production of Asia Pacific countries were predicted to increase to three to eight times current levels. Such a forecast has very serious implications for the rise in industrial waste, water pollution, and air pollution. Urban populations were assumed to double from 923 million (1993) to 2,074 million (2025). Passenger car ownership will increase even more rapidly; in 2025, China will have three times Japan's number of passenger cars, and the total passenger car ownership in the region will rise over five times from 91 million now to 522 million cars. As standards of living rise, consumption of animal foods will probably increase; for example daily per capita caloric consumption from animal foods in China is predicted to rise from 581 to 1,062, with implications for agriculture and the demand for feed grains. Demand for seafood in 2025 is expected to increase by at least 50% in developed countries, and more than double in developing countries.
The AIM model predicted primary energy consumption to rise 2.3 to 3.8 times the 1990 level by 2025. CO2 emissions from the Asia-Pacific region were predicted to rise from the current 25% of the world total, to 36% in 2025. SO2 and NOx emissions were projected to rise 1.7 to 3.4 times present levels in 2025, implying serious problems with acid deposition damage in East and South Asia. Land-use change will also release CO2, reduce biological diversity, and threaten the traditional lives of indigenous peoples. Forest lands are predicted to decline by almost half in the period from 1990 to 2100.
Asia-Pacific Eco-Consciousness
The report proposes a conceptual tool for countries in the region which could
guide partnerships to solve environmental problems: 'Asia-Pacific Eco-
Consciousness' encompasses common environmentally sound practices, traditions,
modes of social conduct, decision-making and bodies of indigenous knowledge. The
report suggests such common elements should continue to be identified, maintained,
and encouraged. Where possible, they should be integrated into the development
process in order to achieve sustainable development. Mechanisms to achieve this
goal need further attention and research.
Elements shared by countries and cultures in the region include frugal traditional lifestyles, sustainable agriculture and industry based on indigenous knowledge, harmonious co-existence with nature, and emphasis on meeting real needs rather than induced desires. They share values of creativity originating from fusing the modern and traditional, and strength of the family as a unit of society. Their modes of decision-making are characterised by consultation rather than confrontation, reliance on consensus, settling disagreements through discussion rather than legal action, pragmatic rather than doctrinal approaches to problem solving, and informal as well as formal approaches to governance. Economic growth is achieved at relatively lower levels of energy use, and per capita caloric consumption is low and largely derived from plants rather than animals.
Based on the discussion, two economic growth scenarios were proposed which could allow sustainable development: a moderate growth rate using 'eco- consciousness' ('leap-frog' style); and rapid growth, which minimizes environmental costs by learning from past mistakes and lessons of developed countries.
Future Regional Action
The Project proposes three concepts which are (1) 'Eco-Partnership', (2) 'Eco-
Technology and Eco-Investment', and (3) 'Eco-Policy Linkage' in pursuing future
regional actions for sustainable development:
1.Eco-Partnership
'Eco-Partnership' is defined as activity which reinforces cooperation and
exchange of experience within and between the various sectors within countries,
regionally and internationally, including not only governments, but also
companies, NGOs and local authorities.
(1) Exchange of experience country to country
(a) Sharing of experience between countries can be valuable in
avoiding environmental problems. A late launch on the path of
economic growth is not entirely disadvantageous. Newly
industrialized countries can avoid mistakes made by countries that
preceded them in economic development. Developed countries can
often provide experience to developing ones and encourage
sustainable development approaches and practices. In some cases, a
developing country may also find value in the approaches taken
and technologies adopted by semi-developed countries that are closer to
their stage of economic development.
(b) The promotion of cleaner production techniques in all aspects of manufacturing and industry, energy efficiency and energy distribution technologies should be encouraged through international cooperation.
(c) Cooperation among middle-income developing countries in the environmental field should be encouraged. Middle-income countries might have more to share with developing countries relating to issues and experience in overcoming environmental problems, because their experience is more recent than countries which industrialized earlier.
(d) Sub-regional cooperation should also be encouraged. Many environmental problems that relate to the physical environment, social conditions, and traditions have more in common within sub-regions. Exchanges and sharing of information should be encouraged among governments, research institutes and NGOs.
(e) The development and use of electronic networks should be supported, such as the 'Eco Asia Net' proposed by the Environment Agency of Japan.
(2) Exchange of experience by companies
The project makes the following recommendations for the private sector:
(a) Companies which have advanced technologies should be encouraged to
transfer environmentally sound technology (EST) to subsidiaries or joint
ventures in developing countries, and form links with companies in those
countries;
(b) Sharing of information related to the environment and dialogue should
be promoted;
(c) Companies in developed countries could assist those in developing
countries to meet the ISO 14000 series of standards for corporate
environmental management.
(d) Financial and technical assistance is necessary for small and medium
enterprises (SME). A network involving governments, SME, and NGOs is
recommended to facilitate cooperation, particularly with the provision of
information.
(3) Involvement of NGOs
In the Asia-Pacific region, relationships of NGOs with governments and
companies have often been portrayed as confrontational, but with social and
economic changes in the region these relationships are becoming more
mutually constructive, with the realisation that NGOs, with their local roots,
have an important role in fighting environmental problems. Governments
should continue supporting NGO activities.
(4) Exchange of experience for Local Authorities
Often the national level is too large for approaches to environmental
problems. Cities and local authorities can play a major role in the quest to
achieve sustainable development: they are closer to their citizens, and are in
a better position to hear their needs and respond in a more finely-tuned way.
Cities in the Asia-Pacific region with rapidly growing populations share
many similar urban environmental problems. Exchanges between cities, to
share experiences and knowledge, would promote exchanges of ideas and
combined efforts to find solutions to these problems. Examples of initiatives
which deserve support include sister city programs, the International
Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the Metropolitan
Environment Improvement Project (MEIP) for major Asian cities by the
World Bank and the UNDP, and the 20% Club for Sustainable Cities.
(5) Joint Activities
For maximum effectiveness, bi-lateral and multi-lateral development
assistance programs and projects should be designed in cooperation, rather
than independently. This cooperation should include transfers of technology
and know-how. Also, NGOs, companies, and governments could cooperate to
develop environmentally friendly products and markets. As incomes and
standards of living rise, consumers are more willing to spend more for
environmentally friendly products.
2.Eco-Technology and Eco-Investment
The Project calls for support in the region for 'Eco-Investment', which is
investment that reconciles economic growth and environmental protection, and
'Eco-Technology', which is environmentally sound technology. The need for
investment in environmental measures in the Asia-Pacific region is expected to
grow dramatically through to 2025. Periods of high economic growth, when
large funds are going to capital investment, are opportune times to channel
some funds into environmental protection and related technologies. In the
process of transfer of environmentally friendly technology, domestic capacity in
the field should be developed. Developing countries should be encouraged to
take advantage of the opportunity to reduce time and costs along the
development path, by incorporating technology, know-how and systems of
developed countries.
The following three proposals are particularly important at a time of rapid economic growth, and should be implemented quickly in order to fully utilize foreign direct investment, ensure the manufacturing sector incorporates greater energy efficiencies, and avoid later costs of renovation and improvement.
(1) Localization of Eco Industry
Much foreign direct investment now goes into real estate, manufacturing for
export, and manufacturing consumer goods for domestic markets.
Investment and joint ventures in local environment-related industries
should be encouraged, with adaptation to the conditions and needs of the
particular country.
(2) Promotion of investment in infrastructure for environmental
protection
As industrialization accelerates the rate of urbanization in the Asia-Pacific
region, the need grows for new infrastructure such as waterworks, sewerage,
waste treatment, urban transportation, and other elements of social
infrastructure. Energy-efficient public transport, which has less
environmental impact, is also high priority.
(3) Promotion of investment in energy conservation
A commitment to energy conservation is important at a time of economic
growth; energy saving technologies should be incorporated at the same time
that the manufacturing sector expands and investment in new facilities is
large. Based on the experience of industrialized countries, market
mechanisms can control energy consumption and promote energy
conservation. In many developing countries where energy prices are held
artificially low, an adjustment of energy prices to reflect true costs will
encourage energy conservation, introduction of renewable energies, and
research and development by the public sector.
3.Eco-Policy Linkage
'Eco-Policy Linkage' is defined by the Project as strategy that
(1) links the domestic environmental policies of developing countries with
global-scale environmental policies,
(2) thereby supporting the domestic environmental policies of those countries,
while
(3) effectively contributing to the achievement of global environmental
policies.
Many developing countries in Asia must deal with local problems such as air and water pollution, at the same time as dealing with global issues; this is different from some developed countries, which dealt over time with domestic environmental issues before the global issues became pressing. Many developing countries will have difficulty with global issues because of limited economic strength, weak local administration, restrictions on freedom of information, and inability to use market mechanisms, etc. The project seek solutions in this area.
Dealing with global and domestic issues simultaneously, as required by the current situation, could be an opportunity to find efficiencies. The integration of response policies is the key. As an example, industrialized countries have found improvements in energy efficiency are the best ways to reduce CO2 emissions, methods that are at the same time effective in reducing SO2 and NOx emissions. International efforts to control CO2 emissions could be linked to measures of developing countries to reduce local pollutants. The project proposes the following strategies for consideration:
(1) Air Pollution Prevention Linked Strategy (AIRS)
AIRS seeks to promote new air pollution prevention strategies in developing
countries by linking developing countries' policies for controlling emissions of
SO2, NOx and other substances, to international policies for arresting global
warming and acid deposition. It would identify the best integrated strategies
for developing countries to control local air pollution, acid deposition, global
warming, and aerosol pollution.
(2) Natural Resource Recovery Linked Strategy (NATS)
NATS strategy would link developing countries' natural resource recovery
policies involving forest management, soil recovery and food production with
international policies such as arresting global warming.
(3) Recycling Promotion Linked Strategy (RECS)
This strategy would develop new recycling programs involving developed
and developing countries. New recycling networks could transcend national
boundaries, stimulate the recycling businesses in developed countries,
vitalize small industries in developing countries, and promote the global
conservation of resources.
(4) Biodiversity Protection Linked Strategy (BIOS)
This strategy would link developing countries' policies for protecting
biodiversity and the natural environment with programs to promote eco-
tourism.
(5) Water Pollution Prevention Linked Strategy (WATS)
With aims of promoting technology transfer, cooperative activities, and
domestic and local activities, this strategy would link national policies for
water quality control in rivers and adjacent seas to regional and sub-regional
policies to prevent water pollution on the high seas.
Conclusions and Recommendations
1.Conclusions
In conclusion, if the Asia-Pacific region proceeds with economic
development as currently planned without a unifying sustainable development
policy framework, there will be grave consequences. Such a framework would
allow countries of the Asia-Pacific region to pursue economic improvement
policies which address poverty and provide a better quality of life for their own
people through sustainable development.
The Project suggests "Asia-Pacific Eco-Consciousness" as a conceptual
tool, which identified a variety of Asia-Pacific traditions and lifestyles that used
to be environmentally sound.
Traditional values and ways of life can provide the philosophical
underpinning and models of behavior toward the environment and serve as
guidelines for sustainable development.
While environmentally sound traditional lifestyles are to be rediscovered
and respected, new approaches to environmental problems should be promoted,
reflecting new concepts in policy. The project then proposes the following three
concepts as well a future regional actions; "Eco-Partnership", "Eco-Technology
and Eco-Investment" and "Eco-Policy Linkage".
The report closes with the following recommendations and follow-up
activities, saying that the continuation of cooperative work in the region like
this ECO ASIA Long-term Perspective Project is important.
2.Recommendations
(1) Asia-Pacific Eco-Consciousness
ECO ASIA Long-term Perspective Project should further develop and
disseminate the concept of Asia-Pacific Eco-Consciousness. This will
encourage each country to rediscover those elements in its traditional way of
life that are suited to conserve the environment and to protect and nurture
them, including incorporating them into national policies, action plans and
educational curricula to ensure their transmission to future generations. The
countries of the region need to create institutions and processes to learn from
each other's experiences to jointly create new patterns of sustainable
development.
(2) Eco-Partnership
It is recommended that governments provide support to small and
medium enterprises that often lack funds, technology, and information on
low environmental impact technologies; assistance should also be sought
from NGOs and industry sector groups.
Countries need to support the activities of non-profit NGOs as they
provide important information for decision-makers as well as enhancing
public awareness of the role of citizens in reducing environmental problems.
Inter-city networks such as ICLEI need encouragement and support
in their initiatives in establishing fora and joint actions for the resolution of
urban environmental problems.
(3) Eco-Technology and Eco-Investment
Companies possessing environmentally sound technology should be
encouraged to transfer this when establishing subsidiaries or joint ventures
in developing countries.
Governments in the region need to actively stimulate a major
increase in investment in environmental management and protection in the
industrial and government sectors.
Governments should thoroughly investigate market mechanisms in
order to meet the immense environmental investment requirements in the
region.
Steps need to be taken to foster growth of the domestic eco industry in
developing countries by offering incentives to foreign investors to enter into
joint ventures with local enterprises.
Countries should provide environmental and energy conservation
guidelines for external investors in manufacturing and real estate
development.
Governments need to review energy prices that are set at artificially
low levels and thus provide incentives for investment in energy conservation.
During periods of major industrial expansion, governments should require
companies to incorporate energy-saving technology as part of energy use.
(4) Eco-Policy Linkage
Governments need to closely link their national policies with regional and
international policies in the following areas in order to achieve maximize
progress on the environmental issues such as AIRS, NATS, RECS, BIOS,
WATS.
3.Follow-up Activities
Particular proposals for follow-up activities are:
(1) To report the results of ECO ASIA Long-term Perspective Project to the
Fifth Section of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development or to the
Special Session of the UN General Assembly.
(2) To organize international workshops to further develop approaches and
activities on the following four items: Eco-Consciousness, Eco-Partnership,
Eco-Technology and Eco-Investment, and Eco-Policy Linkage.
(3) To outline the role and function of the ECO ASIA Focal Point in each
country and establish a means for maintaining linkage between country
focal points.
(4) To develop the AIM and Framework models further (particularly Japan),
closely linked with the development of environmental indicators in the
region; in addition, opportunities to use these models in countries in the
region should be sought; countries should establish the necessary data
collection and training systems;
(5) To establish a regional Asia Pacific environmental information network
(ECO ASIA NET may be the basis for this). To ensure effective in-country
use, the necessary training programs and computer hardware should be
identified, planned and funded;
(6) To pursue policies and actions which involve new actors including NGOs
and the private sector.